Others seek a common core among diverse examples of knowledge, such as Paul Silva's "awareness first" epistemology or Barry Allen's definition of knowledge as "superlative artifactual performance". It can be understood in analogy to how chemists analyze a sample by seeking a list of all the chemical elements composing it. The term "analysis of knowledge" is often used for this approach. Others try to provide a theoretically precise definition by listing the conditions that are individually necessary and jointly sufficient. Some theorists focus on knowledge's most salient features in their attempt to give a practically useful definition. These disagreements have various sources that belong to the goals and methods within epistemology and other fields, or to differences concerning the standards of knowledge that people intend to uphold. However, it has been criticized in diverse ways and many alternative definitions have been suggested. One definition that many philosophers consider to be standard is justified true belief (JTB). There are many deep disagreements about knowledge's precise nature despite agreement on these general but vague characteristics. It contrasts with knowledge-how ( know-how) expressing practical competence, as in "she knows how to swim", and knowledge by acquaintance, which refers to a familiarity with the known object based on previous direct experience. Knowledge-that can be expressed using that-clauses as in "I know that Dave is at home". Most definitions of knowledge in analytic philosophy aim to determine the essential features of propositional knowledge, which is also referred to as knowledge-that. There is wide, though not universal, agreement among philosophers that knowledge can be characterized as a cognitive success or an epistemic contact with reality and that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief. The expressions "conception of knowledge", "theory of knowledge", and "analysis of knowledge" are sometimes utilized as synonyms. Numerous definitions of knowledge have been suggested. Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. Science tries to acquire knowledge using the scientific method, which is based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. The problem of the value of knowledge concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. It is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. The most important source is perception, which refers to the usage of the five senses. Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that it is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations.
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